1.0 Introduction
Technical Terms 专业术语
1.grammar :n 语法
2.prescriptive grammar :n 规定性语法
3.descriptive grammar :n 描述性语法
4.morphology :n 形态学;词法学
5.morpheme: n 词素;语素
6.syntax :n 句法
1.1 English Grammar
1.16th century, William Bullokar, the first book for English grammar:Bref Grammar for English
2.Descriptive grammar (描述性语法)
examine the rules or patterns that underlie our use of words, phrases, clauses, and sentences.(P40)
3.Prescriptive grammar (规定性语法)
try to enforce rules about what they believe to be the correct uses of language.(P40)
描述性语法:通过分析语料库中词、短语、分句、句子等的使用方法,描述语言使用规则和模式。
规定性语法:通过制定一些语言使用的规则,控制人们的语言行为。
两者联系与区别:两者都是关于语言使用规则,但是方式不同。描述性语法关注描述语言是如何被人们所使用的,具有客观性;而规定性语法则是规定人们如何使用语言,具有主观性。(P40)
4. English grammar is the body of rules that describe the structures of expressions in the English language.
(This includes the structure of :words, phrases, clauses and sentences.)(P40)
1.2 Terminology 术语
·grammar(语法):
①Broadly speaking, it is a full description of the form and meaning of the sentences of the language.广义,描述句子形式和意义。
②Narrowly speaking, it covers certain parts of a description, focusing on syntax and morphology.狭义,描述句法和形态。
1.Syntax(句法) is concerned with the way words combine to form sentences.
2.Morphology (形态) is related to the form of words.
3.(传统)sentence:the expression of a complete thought.
(现代)sentence(句子):the largest unit to which a grammatical structure can be assigned.
4.常见句子结构:
SV, SVC, SVO, SVOO, SVOA, SVOC, SVA.
S=subject, V=verb, O=object,
A=adverbial, C=complement.
A sentence is composed of smaller units(P41):
clause, phrase, words,etc.
In grammatical terms, a sentence is the largest unit, a word is the smallest.(Figure1.1, P41)
In writing system, the smallest meaningful element is Morpheme.(词素) (Figure1.2, P42)
Text(语篇):several sentences could come together to form a larger linguistic unit— text— to convey a complete message.
1.3 Morphemes 词素
eg:unmentionables
组成词素:un-mention-able-s
每一个部分都有固定的意义,但是不可再细分。它们代表词素,是语法分析中最小的意义单位。
Free morpheme(自由词素):a morpheme that can occur alone.
Bound morpheme(粘着词素):a morpheme that can only occur in conjunction with at least one other morpheme.
区别:
A free morpheme can be a simple word:
boy, girl, do, go...;or the root of a derivative(派生词的词根):unmentionables 中的 mention.
A bound morpheme is an affix(词缀),either inflectional affix (曲折词缀, boy-s,go-ing),or derivational affix(派生词缀, kind-ness,im-polite).
affix:prefix(前缀), suffix(后缀)
eg:in,im...,-able,-tion
(曲折词缀:具有语法规则,不构成新词,只改变词形。
派生词缀:无固定规则,构成新词,改变词性。)
Free morphemes often carry the meaning and can occur alone.
Bound morphemes often show grammatical features and is affiliated to the root.(P43)
1.4 Words 词
Two major kinds of word classes:
open class(开放词类) and closed class(封闭词类).
open class:also called lexical words, focusing on the form of words. Their membership is fairly open-ended, so we can coin new words to add to them.
eg:Nouns(名词N),Verbs(动词V),
Adjective(形容词Adj),Adverbs(副词Adv).
·closed class:also called grammatical words, focusing on functions of words.Their membership is fixed and no words can be created.
·eg:Determiners(限定词Det),Pronouns(代词Pron),Prepositions(介词Prep),Conjunctions(连词Conj),Auxiliaries (助动词Aux)
区别:
Words in the open classes may be determined by three complementary criteria:meaning, form and function.
(The most reliable is function.(利用功能辨别词类)
eg:...... a lot of cash.
....... cash the check.)
Closed-class members are mutually exclusive and mutually defining in meaning.(P45)
1.5 Phrases 词组
·A phrase consists of one or more than one word, usually a string of words built up around a head word [which determines both the class of the phrase and the way it is structured.]
·Five types:
·noun phrase(NP); verb phrase(VP);
·adjective phrase(AP); adverb phrase(AdvP);
·prepositional phrase(PP).
牢记:修饰noun用adj
a nice girl
修饰verb用adv
He runs quickly.
修饰adj用adv
He is very happy.
修饰adv用adv
He works very hard.
1.5.1 The noun phrase
A noun phrase consists of a head word, which is usually a noun, and one or more optional modifiers.
一个中心词(名词),一个或者多个可选的修饰语。
构成:NP =(modifier) + head word+ (modifier)(P46-P47)
1.5.2 The verb phrase
·A verb phrase consists of a head word, which is the main verb(主要动词) and other optional modifiers.
·构成:VP = (auxiliary) + (modifier)+ main verb
·若无auxiliary(助动词),此VP是simple verb phrase.
·若有auxiliary,此VP是complex verb phrase. (P47 - P48)
区分:the finite verb phrase限定动词短语
the non-finite verb phrase 非限定动词短语
The head word or the first element of a finite verb phrase is a finite verb, which bears the tense marker and keep in concord with the subject.
(即中心词为谓语部分,有时态变化,跟主语一致。)
eg:Sue likes black coffee.
I have not yet given up all hope of finding you.
In a non-finite verb phrase, the first element is a non-finite verb free of the constraints that a finite verb is subject to.
·第一个成分是非限定动词,不可做谓语,即非谓语动词。
·1.Infinitive 动词不定式 (to + V原形)
·2.-ing participle 现在分词
·3.-ed participle 过去分词
·eg:I didn't expect you to be here.(P48)
1.5.3 The adjective phrase
An adjective phrase consists of an adjective as its head word and optional modifiers.
构成:(premodifier)+adj+(postmodifier)
eg:The game was very exciting.
I don't find the language difficult to learn.(P49)
1.5.4 The adverb phrase
The head word of an adverb phrase is an adverb that can take optional premodifiers and postmodifiers.
eg:He works very hard.
He works hard enough.(P50)
1.5.5 The prepositional phrase
A prepositional phrase is a noun phrase which is the complement preceded by a preposition which is the head word.(P50-51)
(即在名词短语之前加上作为中心词的介词,一般作补语。)
eg:That man is dressed like a woman.
There are a lot of people in the office.